Identity: Youth and Crisis

Like Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), his predecessor in the field of psychoanalysis, Erikson believed that personality develops over several stages. However, Freud rooted the development of the personality in childhood as it related to sexual urges, a process called psychosexual development. Erikson’s theory, in contrast, explained psychosocial development—the formation of the personality within society over the course of an individual lifetime.

Erikson theorized that psychosocial development takes place in eight stages, each centered around a conflict or turning point that must be overcome in order for a person to proceed to the next stage. Every stage provides strengths and skills that build as the individual progresses through them.

Stages 1-4 take place during childhood. Stage 1, Infancy, covers birth to 18 months. The central issue is one of trust versus mistrust. To have lifelong trust in others, the child must be able to depend on caregivers for all of their needs: food, love, warmth, safety, nurturing.

Stage 2 is Early Childhood, spanning ages one or two to three. In this stage, children must resolve the conflict of autonomy versus shame. To achieve independence, they must gain control over bodily functions, especially toilet training, along with the opportunity to express preferences for food, clothing, and toys.

In Stage 3, the Preschool or Play Age period, preschoolers resolve feelings of inhibition and guilt to take initiative in play and social interactions with others. They must learn to balance leadership and cooperation with others.

Stage 4, the School Age period, takes place from ages five or six to eleven or twelve. In it, children must overcome feelings of inferiority, especially as they relate to school, to achieve personal industry and confidence. Encouragement from parents and teachers contributes to success during this stage.

While other stages are grouped together, Stage 5, the Adolescence period spanning ages 12 to 18, stands alone. It concerns identity formation and identity confusion as they play out in social relationships. Teens must successfully develop a sense of self to have a secure place in society. Erikson calls this sense of self the ego identity, which develops through interactions with other people.

Stages 6-8 are the stages of adulthood. Stage 6, Young Adulthood, covers ages 19 to 40. Its central conflict is between intimacy, as it is found in relationships and love, and isolation. Humans draw on the skills learned in earlier stages, especially the sense of personal identity, to have successful relationships.

Stage 7, the Adulthood period, spans the ages between 40 and 65. It concerns the need to engage with others, whether through parenting, volunteering, or work, as opposed to stagnating through self-absorption. People succeed in this stage when they are able to contribute to the greater community.

Finally, Stage 8 is the Maturity or Old Age period, in which individuals must attain wisdom and integrity without disdaining or despairing old age. Success equates to being able to look back at one’s life with a feeling of satisfaction.

Erikson’s theory has been criticized for being vague and not spelling out all the life experiences that can be involved in each stage. In addition, the presentation of conflicts within each stage as a set of binary issues makes the development of personality seem more black and white than fluid. However, it is still considered a valuable framework for viewing human development in relation to society and over the course of an entire lifetime.