The World Beyond Your Head

“Our mental lives become shapeless, and more susceptible to whatever presents itself out of the ether. But of course, these presentations are highly orchestrated; commercial forces step into the void of cultural authority and assume a growing role in shaping our evaluative outlook on the world. Because of the scale on which these forces operate, our mental lives converge in a great massification—ironically, under the banner of individual choice.”

Crawford explores how modern society’s myriad distractions, often commercial in nature, shape and influence our thoughts and behaviors. He critiques the irony of perceived individual choice, suggesting that our decisions and focus are increasingly manipulated by commercial interests that fill the cultural void left by the decline of traditional authoritative structures. This manipulation leads to a uniformity in thought and action, disguised as personal freedom, impacting our capacity to form genuine individual thoughts and judgments.

“The media have become masters at packaging stimuli in ways that our brains find irresistible, just as food engineers have become experts in creating ‘hyperpalatable’ foods by manipulating levels of sugar, fat, and salt. Distractibility might be regarded as the mental equivalent of obesity. The palatability of certain kinds of mental stimulation seems to be hardwired, just as our taste for sugar, fat, and salt is.”

Crawford draws a parallel between the manipulation of food to increase its desirability and the media’s crafting of stimuli that are irresistibly engaging to our brains, suggesting that both lead to forms of “obesity.“ He argues that just as hyperpalatable foods can lead to physical obesity, engineered stimuli can cause a sort of mental obesity, characterized by distractibility and a diminished capacity for deep, sustained thought. This analogy highlights the impact of external manipulations on our natural inclinations and behaviors, emphasizing a critical view of how modern media shapes our mental environment.

“A jig reduces the degrees of freedom that are afforded by the environment. It stabilizes a process, and in doing so lightens the burden of care—on both memory and fine muscular control. The concept of a jig can be extended beyond its original context of manual fabrication. As David Kirsh points out in his classic and indispensable article ‘The Intelligent Use of Space,’ jigging is something that expert practitioners do generally, if we allow that it is possible to jig one’s environment ‘informationally.’”

Crawford introduces the concept of a “jig” as a tool or method that simplifies tasks by constraining the environment to produce consistent results with less cognitive effort. He extends this concept from physical to informational contexts, suggesting that skilled professionals, such as bartenders or chefs, create mental jigs to manage their environments efficiently. This idea underpins Crawford’s broader argument that our interaction with the world is mediated not only by physical tools but also by cognitive structures that shape our perception and actions, influencing our ability to focus and engage effectively with our surroundings.

“Another way to put this is that the left’s project of liberation led us to dismantle inherited cultural jigs that once imposed a certain coherence (for better and worse) on individual lives. This created a vacuum of cultural authority that has been filled, opportunistically, with attentional landscapes that get installed by whatever ‘choice architect’ brings the most energy to the task—usually because it sees the profit potential.”

Crawford discusses the societal and cultural shifts following the World War II era, where traditional forms of cultural authority and norms (cultural jigs) were dismantled in pursuit of individual liberation. He argues that this dismantling led to a void that was quickly filled by new forms of control, particularly those driven by market forces, which he terms “attentional landscapes.” These landscapes are shaped by entities (choice architects) that stand to profit from influencing individuals’ decisions, thus replacing old cultural authorities with new, commercially driven ones. This analysis highlights Crawford’s concern about the replacement of traditional social structures with consumer-oriented manipulation.

“There is a very real sense in which a tool may be integrated into one’s body, for one who has become expert in using the tool. There is a growing number of studies that support this idea of ‘cognitive extension’; the new capacities added by tools and prosthetics become indistinguishable from those of the natural human body, in terms of how they are treated by the brain that organizes our actions and perceptions.”

Crawford explores the concept of “cognitive extension,” where tools and prosthetics become integrated into a user’s body and cognition. He highlights how the constant and skilled use of a tool, like a hockey player with a stick, leads to a blurring of the boundaries between the tool and the user’s natural body capabilities. This integration affects how the brain perceives and controls the body’s actions, essentially extending the user’s cognitive and physical abilities through the tool. This idea supports Crawford’s broader discussion on how our engagement with the world is mediated by tools that enhance our capabilities and reshape our interactions and perceptions.

“Among philosophers there is currently a quarrel about what role (if any) concepts—the kind you can state in language—play in skilled activities. On one side is Hubert Dreyfus, who says that when we are engaged in an activity that we are already competent in, anything so thoroughly mental as a ‘concept’ doesn’t normally play a role. It can only get in the way and disrupt our ‘smooth coping.’ By ‘smooth coping’ he means a way of acting where our responses to the things we are dealing with are elicited from us by the situation, without articulate thought. This is how you tie your shoes in the morning, for example. It is a skill you learned long ago, and has become automatic.”

Crawford delves into the philosophical debate on the role of language and concepts in skilled activities, contrasting the views of Hubert Dreyfus, who argues that explicit conceptual thinking can interfere with proficiently executed actions, with those who emphasize the necessity of conceptual thought, particularly in risky situations like motorcycling. This discussion enriches Crawford’s exploration of how skills are embodied and embedded within a practitioner’s environment and action routines, emphasizing the fluid interplay between thought, environment, and action in skilled performance.

“The adult will is not something self-contained; it is situated in, and formed by, the contingencies of the world beyond one’s head. The kind of self that accepts this elemental fact contrasts with, and therefore brings into clarifying relief, the more fragile kind of self that is posited in contemporary ethics and fostered by contemporary technology. The freedom and dignity of this modern self depend on its being insulated from contingency—by layers of representation.”

Crawford explores the idea that adult will is inherently shaped by interaction with the physical world, suggesting that true agency is developed through such interactions rather than isolated from them. He contrasts this with modern conceptions of selfhood, which are heavily mediated by technology and representations that detach the self from the physical and material realities of the world, again thematically supporting The Impact of Technology and Advertising on Individual Agency. This discussion critiques contemporary ethical and technological approaches that seek to shield the self from the world’s contingencies, proposing instead that engagement with these contingencies is essential for genuine autonomy and skill acquisition.

“The design of automobiles has tended toward insulation, offering an ever less involving driving experience. The animating ideal seems to be that the driver should be a disembodied observer, moving through a world of objects that present themselves as though on a screen. We have throttle by wire, brake by wire, and electrical assist (versus hydraulic assist) brakes, as well as traction control and antilock brakes that modulate our driving inputs for us.”

Crawford discusses the evolution of automobile design toward greater insulation and less engagement with the driving experience. He critically examines how modern car technologies abstract the driving experience, reducing the driver to a passive observer rather than an active participant. This critique aligns with his broader thesis on the importance of engaging directly with the world to develop genuine skills and understanding, suggesting that technological advancements in car design may be stripping away essential aspects of human experience and interaction with the world.

“When the axis of closer-to-me and farther-from-me is collapsed, I can be anywhere, and find that I am rarely in any place in particular. To be present with those I share a life with is then one option among many, and likely not the most amusing one at any given moment. More broadly, to compose a coherent life on the principle of disembodied, ungrounded choice would seem to be a daunting task.”

Crawford discusses the disorienting effects of modern digital environments, which erase the natural human perception of space and distance, causing a feeling of being “nowhere in particular.” This dislocation, he argues, makes meaningful engagement with the physical and social world—one that is typically defined by our bodily presence and interactions—increasingly rare and less appealing. He critiques the modern lifestyle that prioritizes virtual experiences over physical presence, suggesting it challenges the composition of a coherent and engaged life.

“Schüll refers to a concept called perfect contingency in the literature of child development, which names a situation of ‘complete alignment between a given action and the external response to that action, in which distinctions between the two collapse.’ Early infancy is a bit like this: a state of ‘seeming merger with the mother’s body (and by extension, with the wider environment) that derives from the seamless adaptation of the mother’s responses to her infant’s needs, wants, and gestures.’”

Crawford delves into the psychological and developmental impacts of modern technology, particularly how it mimics the conditions of early infancy, offering an illusion of control and immediate gratification. He draws parallels between the seamless responses of electronic interfaces and the responsiveness of a mother to an infant, suggesting that technology can engender a regressive comfort by fulfilling our desires without delay or unpredictability, thus undermining the development of mature coping mechanisms and resilience to frustration.

“The more advanced stages of machine gambling addiction are explained by Schüll with recourse to Freud’s idea of the death instinct. She quotes a gambler named Maria who says, ‘The only real control you can have over the end is to make it come faster.’ This sounds like the peculiar, self-negating agency of suicide, and the analogy is apt (quite apart from the prevalence of actual suicide among gambling addicts, which is higher than for any other addiction).”

Crawford delves into the psychological dimensions of addiction, particularly gambling, through the lens of Freud’s concept of the death instinct. He explores how the gambling industry designs machines that exploit this instinct, leading gamblers toward a self-negating form of control, hastening one’s own demise or financial ruin. Crawford critiques this as an extreme manifestation of human interaction with engineered environments that foster dependency and diminish genuine agency.

“When we talk about freedom, what we are keen to be free from is a moving target. Today’s conservatives, if they have an intellectual bent, often refer to themselves as ‘classical liberals.’ The term is apt; the view of freedom that they generally cherish is one that was articulated at the founding of modern liberalism by John Locke and others. […] The freedom of the liberal self is the freedom of newness and isolation. Locke’s state-of-nature thought experiment is explicitly counterfactual. Its premise is that ‘you can understand man and his moral and practical endowments only in isolation from the settings in which he might realize those endowments or, much less, be endowed with them in the first place,’ as Matt Feeney puts it.”

Crawford discusses the historical and philosophical foundations of the concept of freedom in modern Western thought, particularly within the context of liberalism as articulated by John Locke. He critically examines how this concept of freedom has evolved and is interpreted in contemporary times, focusing on the ideal of autonomy and self-responsibility. Crawford challenges the notion that humans can be fully autonomous and independent of their social and physical environments, suggesting that this Enlightenment ideal may no longer suit our current circumstances and may actually lead to a misunderstanding of human interaction and cognition.

“The word ‘education’ comes from a Latin root that means ‘to lead out.’ To be educated is to be led out of oneself, perhaps. Consider the experience of learning a foreign language, beautifully described by Iris Murdoch: If I am learning, for instance, Russian, I am confronted by an authoritative structure which commands my respect. The task is difficult and the goal is distant and perhaps never entirely attainable. My work is a progressive revelation of something which exists independently of me. Attention is rewarded by a knowledge of reality. Love of Russian leads me away from myself toward something alien to me, something which my consciousness cannot take over, swallow up, deny or make unreal.”

Crawford explores the concept of education as an expansive, transformative experience that extends beyond the self. By using the example of learning a language, he illustrates how education involves engaging with and submitting to structures outside oneself, which ultimately enriches one’s understanding and capabilities. This discussion challenges the modern emphasis on autonomy, proposing that true learning and growth occur through interaction with and respect for external authoritative structures, thus leading us out of our internal confines and into a broader, more interconnected existence.

“Scientific inquiry is above all a practice, best understood as a kind of craft. ‘I regard knowing as an active comprehension of the things known, an action that requires skill.’ He draws a parallel between science and craft that I take to be stronger than a mere analogy—rather, they are two expressions of the same mode of apprehending the world: by grappling with real things.”

Crawford discusses the essence of scientific discovery by aligning it with craftsmanship, emphasizing the practice-based, hands-on aspect of gaining knowledge. He argues that both science and craft require a deep engagement with the physical world, highlighting The Role of Skills and Craftsmanship in Achieving Fulfillment. This idea challenges the traditional view of science as a purely intellectual endeavor, proposing instead that it involves a personal, skill-based interaction with the world.

“We live in a world that has already been named by our predecessors, and was saturated with meaning before we arrived. We find ourselves ‘thrown’ into this world midstream, and for the most part we take over from others the meanings that things already have. How are we initiated into these meanings? This question leads us into fascinating issues in developmental psychology.”

Crawford explores the concept of how individuals inherit a pre-defined world filled with meanings established by those before us. He discusses the intrinsic social nature of human perception and understanding, suggesting that our interpretation of the world is largely shaped by cultural and historical contexts, rather than being an independent or objective view. This theme ties back to Crawford’s broader argument about the impact of social environments on individual cognitive processes and the importance of acknowledging this influence to fully understand human cognition and interaction.

“It follows that our experiences are not simply ‘our own.’ This is a bit alarming, perhaps. One response would be to double down on epistemic individualism, and emulate Descartes in his efforts to achieve independence of mind by excluding the testimony of others. But this is unrealistic, for all the reasons we have explored. My hope is that developing an alternative picture of our mental lives, one that does justice to our nature as social beings, can help illuminate the grounds on which individuality really is possible—not solipsistically but sociably, in practices that bring us into cooperation with others. Individuality is something that needs to be achieved, and in this endeavor other people are indispensable to our efforts.”

Crawford challenges the notion of pure individualism by emphasizing the social underpinnings of our experiences and cognitions. He critiques the traditional Cartesian approach to understanding the mind as an isolated entity and proposes a more integrated view that recognizes the essential role of social interactions in forming individual identities. Crawford argues that true individuality is not an innate state but something that must be actively cultivated through our engagements with others, suggesting a more communal and interconnected understanding of self.

“For Hegel, one knows oneself by one’s deeds. And deeds are inherently social—their meaning depends very much on how others receive them. The problem of self-knowledge is in large part the problem of how we can make ourselves intelligible to others through our actions, and from them receive back a reflected view of ourselves. For Hegel, there is no self to be known that exists prior to, or at a ‘deeper level’ than, the self that is in the world. This implies that individuality, too, is something that we achieve only in and through our dealings with others.”

Crawford discusses Hegel’s view on individuality and self-knowledge, emphasizing the inherently social nature of personal identity. According to Hegel, as interpreted by Crawford, our deeds and how they are perceived by others fundamentally shape our understanding of ourselves. Crawford highlights that individuality and self-knowledge are not innate traits but are developed through social interactions and the external reception of our actions. This underscores the argument that our identities are not isolated but are deeply embedded in the social fabric.

“In the Weariness of the Self, Alain Ehrenberg offers a cultural history of depression. He writes: Depression began its ascent when the disciplinary model for behaviors, the rules of authority and observance of taboos that gave social classes as well as both sexes a specific destiny, broke against norms that invited us to undertake personal initiative by enjoining us to be ourselves […] Depression presents itself as an illness of responsibility in which the dominant feeling is that of failure. The depressed individual is unable to measure up; he is tired of having to become himself.”

Crawford explores the cultural and psychological shifts that have led to increasing rates of depression, attributing them to the rise of individualism and the burden of self-realization. He discusses how modern society’s emphasis on personal initiative and the breaking away from traditional roles and norms place a heavy responsibility on individuals to define themselves, leading often to feelings of inadequacy and failure. This societal change has transformed depression from a condition into a symptom of a larger cultural crisis concerning identity and self-worth.

“The meticulous filing of tax returns and watching of televised golf are offered in the spirit of Timothy Leary’s acid trips, adapted to the clean-living imperatives of someone who has struggled with chemical addiction (as Wallace did), and who perhaps retains a jones for bliss of the sort that ordinary life doesn’t offer.”

Crawford discusses the concept of finding meaning and fulfillment in mundane activities through intense focus and attention. By likening the attention to mundane tasks like filing tax returns or watching golf to Timothy Leary’s psychedelic experiences, Crawford explores how individuals like David Foster Wallace sought transcendence and bliss through disciplined attention, even in the absence of external stimuli typically associated with such experiences.

“Subjectivism leaves people isolated. Moral and aesthetic judgments have the same status as mere sensations, such as an itch—they are entirely one’s own.”

Crawford delves into the societal implications of subjectivism, illustrating how it contributes to a sense of isolation and the erosion of communal values. He argues that by reducing moral and aesthetic judgments to purely subjective experiences, individuals lose the ability to engage in meaningful dialogue and develop a shared understanding of what is valuable or meaningful. This analysis underscores Crawford’s broader exploration of how our individual experiences and judgments intersect with the larger social and cultural landscape.

“The massification of the American mind is a direct response to the burden of individual responsibility; to the feeling that you have been cut off from identifiable, responsible sources of authority outside yourself and must stand alone without guidance or support.”

Crawford discusses the societal shift toward massification and the erosion of individual responsibility and autonomy. He highlights the paradoxical situation where individuals, feeling disconnected from external sources of authority, seek refuge in collective identity, which results in a loss of personal agency and critical thinking.

“The work is historically and socially situated in this way, and seems to invite each of its practitioners to experience his or her own development as a craftsperson as a chapter in a longer historical arc.”

Crawford discusses the importance of tradition and historical context in craftsmanship, particularly in organ making. He highlights how practitioners of this craft are deeply immersed in a historical lineage, which not only informs their work but also shapes their personal and professional development. This emphasizes Crawford’s belief in the importance of The Role of Skills and Craftsmanship in Achieving Fulfillment.

“It seems we need to supplement Kierkegaard’s psychology. He taught us that reverence is a prerequisite to rebellion. The organ reform movement sheds light on the other side of this coin: a readiness to rebel—against the self-satisfaction of the age—seems to be prerequisite to discovering something you judge worthy of reverence. To affirm something in this way, freely and with discernment, is surely one element of what it means to be an individual.”

Crawford draws a parallel between Kierkegaard’s concept of reverence as a precursor to rebellion and the organ reform movement. He suggests that the movement’s readiness to rebel against the perceived shortcomings of contemporary organ-building practices reflects a deeper quest for values deserving of reverence. By critiquing existing norms and striving for improvement based on discerning judgment, individuals within the movement assert their identity and contribute to a deeper understanding of craftsmanship and cultural heritage.